If you think about it, you realize that advancements in gunpowder technology—which are important for conquest—arise where political leaders fight using that technology, where they spend huge sums on it, and where they're able to share the resulting advances in that technology. American per capita income is higher than that of the EU, because a number of the new entrants into the European Union were poorer than the original West European core countries, but in terms of human capital, technology, and exports, Europe is very much a peer competitor for the United States. In some ways, the inevitable frictions between the two continents show a closeness rather than a distance. The National Intelligence Council report foresees a Europe in 2050 that will be “a hobbled giant distracted by internal bickering and competing national agendas”. Are there any overarching themes to your work? Medieval Europe: Europe's medieval period lasted from the fall of Rome in the 5th century to the spread of the Renaissance in the 15th century. Philip Hoffman, Rea A. and Lela G. Axline Professor of Business Economics and Professor of History, Credit: Courtesy of Philip Hoffman/Caltech, Click here to open the "Quick Links" submenu, Click here to open the "Research" Submenu, Click here to open the "Academics" Submenu, Click here to open the "Admissions & Aid" Submenu, Click here to open the "Campus Life & Events" Submenu, Technology Transfer & Corporate Partnerships. The History Of European Colonization Of The Americas Sometime during the 11th century was the first of many European colonization endeavors. The political dominance of western Europe was an unexpected outcome and had really big consequences, so I thought: let's explain it. I've also been interested in the development of tax systems. The Chinese invited the leaders of India, Brazil and South Africa. Native peoples also suffered heavy population losses due to the diseases the Europeans introduced. The United States spends 2.7 per cent –twice as much as Europe – on universities and R&D. Hoffman's work is published in a new book titled Why Did Europe Conquer the World? And in a larger sense, Americans and Europeans share the values of democracy and human rights more with each other than with other regions of the world. Rome lost to the Pyrrhus, the Mithridates, and in the Hannibal wars. But something like the smallpox epidemic that ravaged Mexico when the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire just isn't the whole story of Cortés's victory or of Europe's successful colonization of other parts of the world. In soft power, European cultures have long had a wide appeal in the rest of the world, and the sense of a Europe uniting around Brussels has had a strong attraction for its neighbors. Europeans grew wealthy as a result of easy access to American resources. Then you can bargain with your enemies to divvy up whatever you disagree about and you can have something like peace. They were able to exploit the feuds of the Americans, Africans, Muslims and Asians in order to conduct deals, gaining them land and increasing their influence slowly. [vi]  Stefan Theil, “The Modest Superpower,” Newsweek, November 16, 2009, p. 41. In this article we take in-depth look at the people of Central and Northern Europe and examine facts and history about the Celts. The Catholic Church's power in the Middle Ages was primarily derived from a combination of belief, money and illiteracy. And despite the frictions between parts of Europe and the George W. Bush administration, Barack Obama became almost a cult figure in his popularity in much of Europe. Another explanation, described in Jared Diamond's famous book [Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies], is disease. [viii]  Moreover, as he points out, Europe is the world’s second military power with 21 per cent of the world’s military spending compared to 5 per cent for China, three per cent for Russia,  two percent for India, and 1.5 percent for Brazil. I'd given it to him because the use of this technology is related to politics and fiscal systems and taxes, and as he was reading it, he noted that the book did not give the ultimate cause of why Europe in particular was so successful. So as an explanation, industrialization doesn't work. Instead, the Catholic Church began to grow in power and influence, eventually becoming the dominant power in Europe (although this was not without struggle). European countries engaged in imperialism for various reasons. [iv]  Marcus Walker, “EU Sees Dreams of Power Wane as ‘G-2’ Rises,” Wall Street Journal, January 27, 2010. For that to happen, the countries have to be small and close to one another. That was a really great question and it got me interested. It is also true that American consumers can benefit from European efforts to raise standards in anti-trust actions or internet privacy. [x] Power struggles over conflicting interests are likely to remain at a more mundane level. A: When the Turks closed off the routes to India, it forced European powers to find an alternative route. European seas are stormy, dangerous waters and to survive them, the ships need to be heavy and strong - which meant they were always strong enough to carry canons. Ruthless Colonial Exploitation & Expansion Gave Europe Prosperity! Some other nations in other regions were more secure at the time which made them not have to … [i] Ralph Atkins, “State of the union,” Financial Times, June 1, 2010. In some ways, the inevitable frictions between the two continents show a closeness rather than a distance. The key question in assessing Europe’s resources is whether Europe will develop enough political and social-cultural cohesion to act as one on a wide range of international issues, or whether it will remain a limited grouping of countries with strongly different nationalisms and foreign policies. And the more that the political leaders spend, the better their chances of defeating other leaders and, in the long run, of dominating the other cultures. Direct investment in both directions is higher than with Asia and helps knit the economies together. And all of this describes Europe. But even while doing so, these countries defeated powerful empires, the Aztecs of Mexico, the Moors in Southern Spain, the Mughals of India, the Ottomans of Turkey. [viii]  Andrew Moravcsik, “Europe:  The Quiet Superpower,” French Politics 7, 3 (Sep/Dec 2009), pp. For example, that Europe became industrialized more quickly and therefore became wealthier than the rest of the world. Instead, Europe is starting to look like the loser in a new geopolitical order dominated by the U.S. and emerging powers led by China….No Europeans were invited when U.S. President Barack Obama and Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao held the make-or-break meeting on Dec. 18 that brokered the modest Copenhagen accord. In 1914, really only China, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire had escaped becoming European colonies. It was the wealthiest and most military powerful empire in the Muslim world. Predictions of European decline rely on an outmoded understanding of power. That meeting and Europe’s absence was the ‘seminal image’ of 2009.”, The political scientist Andrew Moravcsik makes a similar argument that European nations, singly and collectively, are the only states other than the U.S. able to “exert global influence across the full spectrum from ‘hard’ to ‘soft’ power. Yes, there are lots of conventional explanations—industrialization, for example—but on closer inspection they all fall apart. Personally, I would much rather see expenditures devoted to infrastructure, or scientific research, or free preschool for everybody—things that would carry big economic benefits—but in this world, I don't think you can stop doing military research or spending money on the military. You can think of that as being much like a baseball team that hires better players to win more games, but in this case, instead of coaches, it's political leaders and instead of games there are wars. The spending on war gave leaders a chance to try out new weapons, new armed ships, and new tactics, and to learn from mistakes on the battlefield. Joseph Nye is a Harvard University Distinguished Services Professor, and a former chair of the US National Intelligence Council. Many of the conquering European kingdoms were extremely powerful and unified, and any with a lack of manpower (Portugal and the Dutch) made up for it with relative wealth. Andrew Moravcsik, “Europe:  The Quiet Superpower,”, Regarding Pro Wrestling, North America will remain as a super power! This advantage endures even today!! In the words of Lord Patten, a former member of the European Commission, “unlike the US we do not matter everywhere.”[iii]. Saxons & Vikings & the Dutch, French and German Empires ect are all Europeans and claimed much islands and colony's to gain recourse's to build their empires from their neighbouring powerful nations. There's a reason central Europe removed so many of it's mixed coniferous forests with coniferous monocultures. Our past contributors have included Jürgen Habermas, Michel Houellebecq and Michael Walzer, among many others. The rest of Europe at that time was really no wealthier than China, the Middle East, or South Asia. I've looked at changes in technology that influence agriculture, and I've studied the development of financial markets, and in between those two, I was also studying why financial crises occur. I wish we did live in that world, but unfortunately it's not realistic. As The Economist noted, “talk of Europe’s relative decline seems to be everywhere just now….You may hear glum figures about Europe’s future weight and with some reason. In 1900, Europe accounted for a quarter of the world’s population. The European Union is economically 12 times larger than Russia; a huge potential power. Instead, European governments (and the IMF) had to organize a $925 million rescue program to try to restore market confidence, and German Chancellor Angela Merkel warned that if the Euro fails, “then not only the currency fails…Europe will fail, and with it the idea of European unity.”[i]. Although Europe represents only about 8 percent of the planet's landmass, from 1492 to 1914, Europeans conquered or colonized more than 80 percent of the entire world. Before 1800, Europe had already taken over at least 35 percent of the world, but Britain was just beginning to industrialize. But in an increasingly networked and interdependent world, it has become the global standard.”  [vi]  As the director of the European Council on Foreign Relations put it, “the conventional wisdom is that Europe’s hour has come and gone. They were well organized, came from the wealthiest families and well educated. So trade was an important incentive for the Europeans to seek colonies abroad. Vikings are believed to be the first Europeans that have reached the Americas and established colonies in Greenland that survived for 400 years (they have been sailing to Iceland but ended up in Greenland instead). The Chinese invented gunpowder, but Hoffman, whose work applies economic theory to historical contexts, argues that certain political and economic circumstances allowed the Europeans to advance gunpowder technology at an unprecedented rate—allowing a relatively small number of people to quickly take over much of the rest of the globe. What led you to investigate the global conquests of western Europe? Andrew Marr looks at why it is that German chancellor Angela Merkel is making such a profound mark on the lives of everyone in Europe, on the eve of her visit to the UK. As The Economist speculated a decade ago, in terms of military security, it is possible that “by about 2030, both Europe and America will be having the same trouble with some other part of the world” such as Russia, China and Muslim southwest Asia.[ix]. [iii]  Chris Patten, “What Is Europe to Do?” New York Review of Books, March 11, 2010, p. 12. Europeans have also been important pioneers and played central roles in international institutions. It is also true that American consumers can benefit from European efforts to raise standards in anti-trust actions or internet privacy. The pope was the most powerful man in Medieval Europe because he was ( to Europeans) the only medium between God and Man. Nor is economic divorce likely. Until the Spring crisis of 2010 when fiscal problems in Greece and elsewhere created anxiety in financial markets, many economists speculated that the Euro might some day replace the dollar as the world’s primary reserve  currency. And despite the frictions between parts of Europe and the George W. Bush administration, Barack Obama became almost a cult figure in his popularity in much of Europe. Why was the pope a powerful figure in medieval Europe? They competed more with each other through war, which meant that they were forced to develop better technologies that helped. [v]  Charlemagne, “Lessons from ‘The Leopard’”, The Economist, December 12, 2009, p. 61. Many of the conquering European kingdoms were extremely powerful and unified, and any with a lack of manpower (Portugal and the Dutch) made up for it with relative wealth. For example, how did states get the ability to impose heavy taxes? You can compare this with the ossified empires of China and the Ottomans, which were large and powerful and had no rivals in the age when small European states were struggling constantly against one another. The Industrial Revolution Accelerated This Prosperity By Making Europeans & Then Americans Richer! So it is easier to succeed. At the cultural level, Americans and Europeans have sniped at and admired each other for more than two centuries. The Celts are a mysterious people who played a very important role in the history of ancient Europe. One lesson the book teaches is that actions involving war, foreign policy, and military spending can have big, long-lasting consequences: this is a lesson that policy makers should never forget. On questions of trade and influence within the World Trade Organization, Europe is the equal of the United States and able to balance American power. In other words, what is Europe’s power conversion capability? Insofar as the term retains any meaning, the world is. So, I put together an economic model of how this technology has advanced to come up with what I think is the real reason why the West conquered almost everyone else. On all issues that require power with - rather than over - others, Europe has impressive capacity. All Europeans (except after the Orthodox Schism) payed tithes to him and homage so he could grant them favour with God. So that's not the answer—it's something else. They were able to exploit the feuds of the Americans, Africans, Muslims and Asians in order to conduct deals, gaining them land and increasing their influence slowly. Unfortunately, they seem to have a relatively short … The Catholic Church put forth the belief that people could only get to heaven through the Church. ... Italy is an EU founding member and Italians were once strong supporters of the European project. This season, the Premier League is fulfilling Mourinho’s words and proving just why it has a greater appeal than the other leagues. New technology, flexibility in labor markets, strong venture capital and an entrepreneurial culture make the American market attractive to European investors. It's just fascinating. Europe has built up an economic union but not a defence union. The European Union is economically 12 times larger than Russia; a huge potential power. Although the American economy is four times larger than Germany’s, the total economy of the European Union is slightly larger than that of the U.S. in purchasing power parity, and Europe’s  population of nearly 500 million is considerably larger than America’s 300 million. Firstly Europe was a continent of many small competing states. Being dominated for centuries has led to lingering inequality and long-lasting effects in many formerly colonized countries, including poverty and slow economic growth. Although the American economy is four times larger than Germany’s, the total economy of the European Union is slightly larger than that of the U.S. in purchasing power parity, and Europe’s  population of nearly 500 million is considerably larger than America’s 300 million. No doubts about it. The answer varies with different issues. At the cultural level, Americans and Europeans have sniped at and admired each other for more than two centuries. I absolutely love travelling to exotic and far-flung destinations, but a few of my recent trips (Dublin and Barcelona) have reminded me how amazingly fortunate I am to live in a country that is so close to so many other countries. Also to know is, what were three reasons why the Catholic Church became so powerful in medieval Europe? Over the decades Europe has seen alternations between excessive optimism and bouts of “Euro-pessimism” such as the current period. They were well organized, came from the wealthiest families and well educated. The … And on issues that require power with rather than over others, the Europeans have impressive capacity. Finally, and this is my most important point, Russia is powerful because Europe grants that power to Russia. This is the beauty of Europe, and these are endless reasons why why Europe is the best continent in the world. The economic model then connected that spending to changes in military technology. My idea incorporates the model of a contest or a tournament where your odds of winning are higher if you spend more resources on fighting. Disease can't explain, for example, the colonization of India, because people in southeast Asia had the same immunity to disease that the Europeans did. #1 What were the 3 reasons why the Catholic church became so powerful in medieval Europe ? It was politically weak, it was poor, and the major long-distance commerce was a slave trade led by Vikings. What made you turn to the idea of gunpowder technology as an explanation? As one journalist reported in 2010, “this year, the 27 nation European Union was supposed to come of age as an actor on the world stage, bolstered by the Lisbon Treaty, which streamlines the EU’s cumbersome institutions. This led to the Voyages of Discovery by the Spanish Conquistadors and Portuguese explorers like Vasco de Gama and Prince Henry the Navigator. The BBC's Andrew Marr looks at why it is that Ms Merkel is making such a profound mark on the lives of people in Europe. How did this work? 9 May 1950: The French foreign minister Robert Schuman makes his famous declaration calling for Germany, France and other countries to jointly control their coal and steel industries. The Celts were a people living in large parts of Europe during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. For example, if I am fighting you and you figure out a better way to build an armed ship, I can imitate you. century is the European Union. In military terms, Europe spends less than half of what the United States does on defense, but has more men under arms, and includes two countries that possess nuclear arsenals. We spoke with him recently about his research interests and what led him to study this particular topic. On the other hand, legislative and executive branch integration has lagged, and while Europe has created a president and a central figure for foreign relations, the integration of foreign and defense policy is still limited. This led to the Voyages of Discovery by the … These heavy, strong, canon-wielding ships were far superior in clout than anything the other powers could come up with. The political dominance of western Europe was an unexpected outcome and had really big consequences, so I thought: let's explain it. Legal integration is increasing, and European Court verdicts have compelled member countries to change policies. so the Europeans had so much power and used it to their advantage of gaining respect. In the cyber world, the EU is setting the global standards for privacy protection. She will go down in German and European history as a leader with a huge amount of staying power at the ve… The technology grew to include more than just guns: armed ships, fortifications that can resist artillery, and more, and the Europeans became the best at using these things. This is an exclusive excerpt from Joseph Nye’s forthcoming book, The Future of Power. Even in a traditional realist assessment of balance of power resources, neither the US nor Europe are likely to threaten the vital or important interests of the other side. Things are much better if the conflict concerns something that can be split up—such as money or land. More than 20 years ago, Germany made a sacrifice for Europe at Maastricht when it agreed to put the deutschmark to the sword so that another currency could be born. All Europeans (except after the Orthodox Schism) payed tithes to him and homage so he could grant them favour with God. Europeans have also been important pioneers and played central roles in international institutions. There are many possible explanations for why history played out this way, but few can explain why the West was so powerful for so long. A d100 is rolled and then modified by the maneuver of the leading general on each side to determine the terrain, you can be in for some nasty surpises if you attack high maneuver generals. Why Angela Merkel is the world's most powerful woman WHEN the Berlin Wall was torn down by the East German people, Angela Merkel, a scientist who lived in … American per capita income is higher than that of the EU, because a number of the new entrants into the European Union were poorer than the original West European core countries, but in terms of human capital, technology, and exports, Europe is very much a peer competitor for the United States. The Chinese invited the leaders of India, Brazil and South Africa. Second most powerful based on alot more than military capabilities, keep in mind this not saying second most powerful military as we all know while we would fit in the top 10 2 would be pushing it. The charts that show why Italy matters so much to Europe. [vii]  Mark Leonard, Why Europe Will Run the 21st Century (London:  Fourth Estate, 2005), p. 2. And in a larger sense, Americans and Europeans share the values of democracy and human rights more with each other than with other regions of the world. The more they spent, the more chances they had to improve their military technology through trial and error while fighting wars. Was the Roman Empire so powerful? The uk does have a massive global reach far beyond its military, culture language law and more plus close ties with a wide selection on countries all over the planet. By 2060, it may account for just 6% – and almost a third of these will be more than 65 years old.”[v]  Europe does face severe demographic problems, but size of population is not highly correlated with power, and “predictions of Europe’s downfall have a long history of failing to materialize.” In the 1980s, analysts spoke of  Euro-sclerosis and a crippling malaise, but in the ensuing decades Europe showed impressive growth and institutional development.
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